Budinian
Classification and Dialects Budinian is spoken in Budinia and is a Northeastern Iranian language. Writing System Grammar Nouns Nouns can be inflected in four cases and in the plural. Declension The general declension in Budinian is quite simple and regular, but there are some defective noun cases like the vocative case or the locative case : * The vocative case, which is formed by adding '-o' at the end of the word, just exists for indigenous names, otherwise it is just expressed by the vocative exclamation "o'''", e.g. '''Davudo, beraj iğa! (='''Davud', come here! - indigenous name''), but : O''' '''Steve, beraj iğa! (='''Steve', come here! - foreign/English name does not have a vocative case'') and : O mân ћavât, boçâde de ând dârve! (='''Oh my god', the plates are broken! - nouns have no vocative case'') * The locative case, which is formed by adding '-â' at the end of the word, just applies to cities or towns and the noun "dom" (=house), otherwise the location is expressed by the preposition "be" (=in, at) followed by the genitive case, e.g. Davud mideştâ Berlinâ. (=Davud lives '''in Berlin'. - city'') and : Âz âm domâ. (=I am '''at home'. - "dom" has a locative''), but : Âz âm be e-daskela. (=I am '''at school'. - regular noun without locative case'') * The instrumental case, which is formed by adding '-i for the singular' and '-is for the plural' at the end of the word, just exists for family members, otherwise it is expressed by the preposition "ve" (=with) followed by the dative case, e.g. Mirâvâm be parkân de mân ћoştari. (=I am going to the park '''with my sister'. - family member''), but : Mirâvâm be parkân de ve mân e-dojşti. (=I am going to the park '''with my girlfriend'. - regular noun with no instrumental case'') * The partitive case, which is formed by adding the prefix e-''' and the '''suffix -u at the word, just applies for edible or drinkable nouns which are wanted (=so followed by verb like to want, to desire etc.), otherwise it is expressed by the accusative case, e.g. Miћaştâm e-çaju. (=I want '''some tea'. - drinkable noun which is wanted''), but : Miћaştâm ağapân. (=I want '''some love'. - regular noun which is wanted, but has no partitive case'') and : Minuşidâm çajân. (=I am drinking '''tea'. - drinkable noun, but which is not wanted'') Notice that the vocative, locative and partitive case are always in the singular and cannot be put in the plural. Definiteness The definiteness is expressed by clitics at the end of the word : * The normal definiteness is expressed by the clitic "de", e.g. dom de (='''the' house'') * The proximal definiteness is expressed by the clitic "le", e.g. dom le (='''this' house'') * The distal definiteness is expressed by the clitic "ğe", e.g. dom ğe (='''that' house'') Notice that the clitics are invariable, so they do not have a special case or plural form. Adjectives Adjectives in Budinian decline exactly like nouns in the different cases and the plural, e.g. Midezâm zevân ğenân. (=I see a '''beautiful' woman. - the adjective "zev" is there in the accusative case''). Comparative The comparative is formed by adding the suffix '-tar' to the adjective stem, e.g. zev'tar' (='''more' beautiful''). The comparison is done by putting the adjective in the comparative form and the compared noun in the genitive case, e.g. Dom le aşt zevtar e-doma ğe. (=This house is '''more beautiful than that house'.). Superlative The superlative is formed by adding the suffix '-tarun''' to the adjective stem, e.g. zev'tarun' (='''most' beautiful''). The comparison is done by putting the adjective in the superlative form and the compared noun in the genitive case, e.g. Âz âm umtarun daskelar de e-avejej e-daskelarej. (=I am the '''cleverest' student of all the students.) Verbs Conjugation As sample verb the verb "'berân'" (=to come'') will be taken to show the regular conjugation, but notice that the verb "budân" (=to be) is irregular : Indicative = Present = * expresses present actions, e.g. Miberâm be domâ. (='''I am coming' home.) * expresses '''scheduled future actions', e.g. Otobus de miberâ be 15:15 satâ. (=The bus '''comes' at 15:15 o'clock.) * the negation is formed by '''removing' the present prefix mi-''' and '''adding the negative prefix''' ni-', e.g. '''Nikonâm' be domâ (='''I am not coming' home.) = Perfect = * expresses '''past actions' leading to a result in the present, e.g. Âm gemade âçarân de. (='''I have lost' the key. - I lost the key in the past, but I still do not have them in the present'') * expresses uncertain past actions, e.g. Şe aşt çetade katâbân de. (='''He might have read' the book. - uncertain past action'') * the perfect is formed by the auxiliary verb "budân" in the present tense and the past participle of the main verb * the negation is formed by putting the auxiliary verb "budân" in the negative form, e.g. Şe njaşt çetade katâbân de. (='''He might not have read' the book.) = Imperfect = * expresses '''past habits', e.g. Seki ğeçânbe ğene de nuşidand çajân be e-kafeja de. (=Every Sunday the women '''used to drink' tea in the café.) * expresses '''ongoing past actions', e.g. Kad çitam katâbân de, telefoni me. (=When '''I was reading' the book, he phoned me.) * the negation is formed by the negative prefix '''ni-', e.g. Niçitam zâd, kad budam ğavân. (=I '''did not use to read' a lot, when I was young.'') Syntax Lexicon Example text